ENDNOTES:
Overview
1. Code Red: America's Five Most Polluted National Parks, last published September 2002. The report looks at acid deposition, ozone, and visibility at national parks that monitor air pollution.
2. Congress in the 1977 Clean Air Act amendments established mandatory "Class I" areas, defined as all international parks, national parks over 6,000 acres and wilderness areas over 5,000 acres and in existence on August 7, 1977. Congress declared as a national goal "the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing, impairment of visibility in mandatory Class I federal areas which impairment results from manmade air pollution." 42 USC Section 7491 (a)(1).
3. Federal Register: April 30, 2004 (Volume 69, Number 84) Page 23857-23951
4. U.S. Department of the Interior, letter to EPA, Docket No. A-2000-28, September 17, 2001.
5. U.S. Department of the Interior, letter to EPA, Docket No. OAR-2003-0079, December 31, 2003.
6. U.S. EPA National Emission Inventory (NEI) Air Pollutant Emission Trends website, www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/trends
7. National Environmental Trust and Clear the Air, Cleaning up Air Pollution from America's Power Plants: The Facts, 2002, p. 34, endnote 12.
8. NPS Air Resources Division, "Air Quality in Our National Parks, second edition," September 2002: p. 11.
9. "On the Air," NPS folio accessed at www2.nature.nps.gov/air/Maps/seki/sekiiota.htm
10. Josette M. Merced Bello, President/CEO American Lung Association of Central California (ALACC).
11. NPS, Public Use Statistics Office www2.nature.nps.gov/stats/
12. Stynes, Daniel & Ya-Yen Sun, 2003 "Systemwide Impact Estimates" [www.prr.msu.edu/mgm2/default.htm]).
13. Clean Air Task Force, Out of Sight: Haze in Our National Parks, August 29, 2000.
14. Abt Associates, The Particulate-Related Health Benefits of Reducing Power Plant Emissions, October 2000. For a quick reference to the key findings of the Abt Associates study, see Clear the Air, Death, Disease, & Dirty Power: Mortality and Health Damage Due to Air Pollution from Power Plants, October 2000, p. 3
15. EPA, "Air Quality Index: A Guide to Air Quality and Your Health;" June 2000.
16. NPS Air Resources Division, "Air Quality in Our National Parks, second edition," September 2002: p. 21-23
17. NPS Air Resources Division and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Air Quality Branch, "Ozone Sensitive Plant Species on National Park Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Lands: Results of a June 24-25, 2003 Workshop," November 2003
California Dreaming or Nightmare?
1. Josette M. Merced Bello, President/CEO American Lung Association of Central California (ALACC).
"A Walk in the Woods"
1. Clean Air Task Force, Out of Sight: Haze in our National Parks, August 29, 2000.
2. Ibid
Great Smoky Mountains National Park
1. Information taken from the Park Service's Great Smoky Mountains website except where otherwise noted. www.nps.gov/grsm/
2. EPA "Guidance for Estimating Natural Visibility Conditions Under the Regional Haze Rule," September 2003, Appendix B. The two numbers represent visibility estimates under natural conditions on the 20 percent worst days, and the annual average.
3. NPS Air Resources Division, "Air Quality in Our National Parks, second edition," September 2002: p. 36.
4. EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Visibility in Mandatory Federal Class I Areas (1994-1998):
A Report to Congress, November 2001.
5. Data provided courtesy of NPS. This is the number of days where ozone reached or exceeded 85ppb on average over an 8-hour period at any monitors in the park.
6. NPS Air Resources Division, "Air Quality in Our National Parks, second edition," September 2002: p. 35-41.
7. Ibid.
Mammoth Cave National Park
1. Information taken from the Park Service's Mammoth Cave website except where otherwise noted. www.nps.gov/maca/
2. EPA, "Guidance for Estimating Natural Visibility Conditions Under the Regional Haze Rule," September 2003, Appendix B. The two numbers represent visibility estimates under natural conditions on the 20 percent worst days, and the annual average.
3. EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Visibility in Mandatory Federal Class I Areas (1994-1998): A Report to Congress, November 2001.
4. Data provided courtesy of NPS. This is the number of days where ozone reached or exceeded 85ppb on average over an 8-hour period at any monitors in the park.
5. Carson, Bob. "Potential Ecological Effects of Increased Ozone Levels On Federally Listed and Sensitive Species."
6. Olson, Rick. "Ecological Effects of Acid Deposition and Nitrogen Enrichment on Terrestrial and Aquatic Systems in Mammoth Cave National Park."
Shenandoah National Park
1. Information taken from the Park Service's Shenandoah National Park website except where otherwise noted. www.nps.gov/shen/
2. EPA, "Guidance for Estimating Natural Visibility Conditions Under the Regional Haze Rule," September 2003, Appendix B. The two numbers represent visibility estimates under natural conditions on the 20 percent worst days, and the annual average.
3. EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Visibility in Mandatory Federal Class I Areas (1994-1998): A Report to Congress, November 2001.
4. Data provided courtesy of NPS. This is the number of days where ozone reached or exceeded 85ppb on average over an 8-hour period at any monitors in the park.
5. NPS, "Fact Sheet: Air Quality and Air Pollution Impacts," June 2002.
6. NPS, "Species Very Sensitive to Ozone Exposure Present at This Site."
Acadia National Park
1. Information was taken from the Park Service's Acadia National Park website except where otherwise noted: www.nps.gov/acad
2. EPA, "Guidance for Estimating Natural Visibility Conditions Under the Regional Haze Rule," September 2003, Appendix B. The two numbers represent visibility estimates under natural conditions on the 20 percent worst days, and the annual average.
3. EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Visibility in Mandatory Federal Class I Areas (1994-1998): A Report to Congress, November 2001.
4. Data provided courtesy of NPS. This is the number of days where ozone reached or exceeded 85ppb on average over an 8-hour period at any monitors in the park.
5. Kohut, R., J. Laurence, P. King, and R. Raba, Identification of Bioindicator Species for Ozone and Assessment of the Responses to Ozone of Native Vegetation at Acadia National Park, NPS, Acadia National Park, 1997.
6. Episodic acidification events at Acadia are in part due to ion exchange of marine salts.
7. Kahl, Jeffrey S. 1996. Lake chemistry at Acadia National Park, 1995. Report to: Acadia National Park, Bar Harbor, Maine; and Kahl, Jeffrey S. et al., 1993. Recent trends in the acid-base status of surface water in Maine, USA. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 67: 281-300.
8. Weathers, Kathleen C. et al, "Cloudwater Chemistry from ten sites in North America," Environmental Science and Technology. 22 (9) 1988.
Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park
1. Information taken from the Park Service's Sequoia-Kings Canyon website except where otherwise noted. www.nps.gov/seki/
2. EPA, "Guidance for Estimating Natural Visibility Conditions Under the Regional Haze Rule," September 2003, Appendix B. The two numbers represent visibility estimates under natural conditions on the 20 percent worst days, and the annual average.
3. Data provided courtesy of NPS. This is the number of days where ozone reached or exceeded 85ppb on average over an 8-hour period at any monitors in the park.
4. "Ozone: the Invisible Poison" from the Sequoia-Kings Canyon website: www.nps.gov/seki/ozone.htm
5. Ewell, D. and D. Gay, "Long-term monitoring of ozone injury to Jeffrey and ponderosa pines in Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks." Paper presented to the Air and Waste Management Association, 1993.
6. Grulke, N. and P. Miller, "Changes in gas exchange characteristics during the life span of giant sequoia: implications for response to current and future concentrations of atmospheric ozone," Tree Physiology 14:659-665. 1994.
7. Sullivan, T.J.; Peterson, D.L.; Blanchard, C.L.; Savig, Kristi; Morse, Dee. Assessment of Air Pollution in Class I National Parks of California. p. IX18-IX68, April 2001.
8. "On the Air," National Park Service folio accessed at www2.nature.nps.gov/air/Maps/seki/sekiiota.htm
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report was prepared by Harvard Ayers and Matt Wasson, Appalachian Voices; and Joy Oakes, Jill Stephens, Kate Himot, Bill Knight, Linda Rancourt, and Laura Whitehouse, National Parks Conservation Association.
This project was made possible, in part, with generous support from Our Children's Earth Foundation, the Merck Family Fund, and through the members and donors of Appalachian Voices and the National Parks Conservation Association.
Conclusions drawn from data analysis, policy recommendations, and any errors or omissions in the report are solely the responsibility of Appalachian Voices, the National Parks Conservation Association, and Our Children's Earth Foundation.
Appalachian Voices is a nonprofit organization focused on protecting forests and communities of the Appalachian Mountain region. For more information, see www.appvoices.org.
The nonpartisan National Parks Conservation Association, with 300,000 members nationwide, is the only private membership organization dedicated exclusively to protecting, restoring, and enhancing national parks.
Our Children's Earth Foundation is a non-profit organization dedicated to protecting the public from the harmful effects of air pollution. For more information, see www.ocefoundation.org. | 
